To gain a full understanding of the matter, we must begin with Socrates’ birth.

However, as Socrates himself left no written works, the information regarding his thoughts and life set out below has been compiled from the writings of his pupils Plato and Aristotle, as well as references in the works of others.

Socrates was born in Athens in 470 BC, at a time when the city was in the golden age of Pericles’ rule. His father was a sculptor and his mother a midwife; the family was not wealthy. From his youth, he followed in his father’s footsteps and worked as a sculptor. He later took part in several military campaigns, including the Peloponnesian War, which would ultimately determine his fate.

Socrates married a woman named Xanthippe, a woman of strong character who was forty years his junior. She was also notorious for her sharp tongue and is said to have been the only person capable of defeating Socrates in a debate.

On one occasion, Xanthippe had another row with Socrates; afterwards, she poured dirty water all over him, to which Socrates remarked: ‘After thunder, there must be a shower.’ They had three sons.

Socrates’ philosophical ideas are primarily conveyed through Plato’s dialogues, the most famous of which include The Symposium, The Gorgias and The Republic.

• Dialectic: Socrates was skilled in the art of debate, using dialogue to guide his students’ thinking and encourage them to discover the truth through in-depth discussion of issues.

• The Wisdom of Ignorance: Socrates openly acknowledged his own ignorance; he firmly believed that constantly questioning and reflecting on issues was the path to wisdom. This humble attitude is known as ‘the wisdom of ignorance’.

• Morality and Virtue: Socrates focused on human character and morality; he believed that only through the pursuit of goodness and virtue could people attain true happiness.

• A Life Devoted to Wisdom: He emphasised the value of pursuing wisdom, maintaining that the true aim of philosophy was to guide people towards living a life imbued with wisdom.

• Political Views: In The Republic, Socrates set out his vision for an ideal political system, including the concept of the ‘philosopher-king’, namely that the most ideal state should be ruled by philosophers.

Athens was not at peace during Socrates’ lifetime. From 431 BC to 404 BC, military tensions arose between the Delian League, led by Athens, and the Spartan League, led by the military powerhouse of ancient Greece, Sparta. As the fighting took place mainly on the Peloponnese Peninsula, this conflict is also known as the Peloponnesian War.

The war was primarily triggered by the following issues:

• Power struggle: The root cause of the Peloponnesian War was the power struggle between Athens and Sparta, which led two distinct alliances respectively, and there were marked differences between the two city-states regarding dominance in Greece.

• Struggle for regional control: Both city-states sought to gain control over the Mediterranean region, particularly the Peloponnese and maritime trade routes. This involved a contest for resources, trade routes and strategic locations.

• Imperialism and expansion: Athens had established a vast empire across Greece and Asia Minor, expanding its influence by founding colonies and conquering other city-states. This aroused concern amongst other city-states, particularly Sparta and its allies.

• The arms race: As military capabilities continued to expand, competition between the two city-states intensified. Both sides strove to build stronger navies and armies to protect their spheres of influence.

• Dissatisfaction with differing political systems: At the same time, Athens and Sparta represented two distinct political systems.

  
  

  Athens was a democracy, whilst Sparta was an oligarchy—a variant of aristocracy in which most, if not all, of the state’s power was effectively held by a privileged class, with wealth, family influence and military might all concentrated in the hands of this elite. These political differences further exacerbated the hostility between the two sides.

During the war, the two alliances signed treaties and agreed to ceasefires on two occasions, but the conflict continued until 404 BC, when Sparta secured Persian support, thereby strengthening its military power, whilst internal strife broke out in Athens.

Under the command of Archidamus, Prince of Argos, Sparta and its allies captured Athens, forcing the city to sign the Treaty of the Thirty Tyrants. This marked the end of the Peloponnesian War. Sparta secured its dominant position, whilst Athens’ empire and democracy suffered a severe blow, bringing the Golden Age to an end.

Subsequently, the Thirty Rulers imposed a brutal regime upon Athens; however, their tyranny eventually provoked popular resistance, leading to the overthrow of the Thirty Rulers and the restoration of democracy in Athens.

The new Athenian government, having only just consolidated its position, sought to erase the shame of defeat and re-establish its authority. As both Critias and Chamides—members of the Council of Thirty—had been students of Socrates, sentencing him to death seemed a convenient option for the new government.

Of course, this was not the sole reason for his death sentence; there were many other factors involved.

• Contempt for the Athenian deities: because he questioned and challenged the official myths and religious beliefs of the time.

  
  

  According to Plato’s Apology, the charges against Socrates arose because his friend Cherephon had asked the oracle at Delphi whether there was anyone wiser than Socrates, and the oracle’s reply was in the negative. Socrates interpreted this reply as a riddle in its own right, prompting him to begin his search for someone wiser than himself.

  
  

  He posed questions to the people of Athens regarding the highest good, beauty and virtue, and discovered that although they believed themselves to be well-informed, in reality they knew nothing.

  
  

  Consequently, Socrates concluded that the only reason he was wiser than others was that he acknowledged his own ignorance. Socrates’ wisdom aroused the resentment of those Athenian politicians whom he had accused of foolishness, ultimately leading to his trial for impiety.

  
  

  On the other hand, the religious culture of the Greeks at that time held that the gods and goddesses played a vital role in defending the city-state; indeed, the city of Athens itself was named after its patron goddess, Athena.

  
  

  Athens’ defeat in the Peloponnesian War was regarded as a punishment meted out by Athena for the city’s lack of reverence towards her, and the remedy was deemed to be the punishment of those who questioned Athena or other deities.

  
  

  In the years preceding Socrates’ conviction, a philosopher named Anaxagoras had been charged with impiety against the gods due to his views on natural philosophy. This may have influenced Socrates’ conviction, as he too was considered to have been influenced by Anaxagoras’ ideas.

  
  

  Socrates’ in-depth exploration of philosophy led some to believe that he was inciting disrespect for the city-state’s religion.

• Questioning the political system:

  
  

  Athens was a democratic city-state, but during the period in which Socrates lived, the Athenian democratic system was facing certain problems. Socrates’ philosophical approach involved questioning power and political institutions, and he emphasised the importance of reason and morality.

  
  

  Such questioning may have been viewed by the political leaders of the time as a challenge to their authority.

• Influencing the younger generation:

  
  

  Socrates’ philosophical activities involved dialogue and debate with young people, which caused concern amongst some of those in power and the elders. He was accused of inciting young people to question traditional moral concepts and the political system.

Although these factors are all considered to have led to Socrates’ death sentence, the specific trial proceedings and the details of the verdict are not exhaustively recorded in historical documents; consequently, certain details remain a mystery to historians.

The legitimacy of the trial:

Some scholars have questioned the legitimacy of Socrates’ trial. Plato provides a detailed account of the trial in The Apology, but his description may contain some literary embellishment intended to highlight Socrates’ philosophical values. It has been suggested that Socrates’ death sentence may have been politically motivated, rather than resulting from the charges of ‘contempt for the city’s deities’ and ‘corrupting the youth’.

Socrates’ Attitude towards Death:

Although Socrates chose the manner of his own death (drinking hemlock), his attitude towards death remains a mystery. Some scholars believe that Socrates chose this method to uphold his philosophical beliefs and principles, whilst others suggest that he possessed a unique understanding of life and death that transcended the fears and anxieties of ordinary people.

Socrates’ Teachings:

As Socrates did not write any works himself, his ideas have been passed down primarily through the writings of his students, such as Plato. There is some debate amongst scholars regarding Socrates’ true philosophical beliefs and teachings; consequently, the actual cause of his death may also be subject to interpretation.

Despite these uncertainties, Socrates’ death is still widely regarded in history as a significant event, symbolising respect for freedom of speech and the pursuit of philosophy, as well as serving as an inspiration to schools of thought such as that of Plato.